Ancient Sanskrit texts are a repository for scientific wisdom contained as a capsule. The fragrance of this wisdom needs to be spread far and wide including every household in our sacred land of India. The "Cutting Edge Technologies" being presented in the forthcoming Science Congress , sharpened by the steely wisdom of our ancient seers should sprinkle intellectual thoughts making India a leader in "Science and Technology" in the foreseeable future . India should take leadership in the global movement of peace, moving with nature and environment, spearheading the scientific spirit of inquisitiveness in achieving the objectives of human upliftment for the benefit and welfare of the entire universe.
The Academy of Sanskrit Research with its vision of "Bridging the gap between the Past and the future through the present" has been making efforts to reach out to the public this valuable information for their benefits through several platforms of scientific research. The present venture, the book on "Science and technology in India through the ages” is one such humble effort.
The Academy of Sanskrit Research, Melkote based on successful handling of the project on "Cosmology" for ISRO, was asked to take up the challenging task of bringing out a book which can throw some light on Science and Technology in India through the ages. The academy accepted the challenge in spite of heavy odds like short time frame. The task of convincing the modern scientists and present generation about the wisdom contained in the ancient texts is really a daunting one.
But the academy, in its own humble and systematic way set forth to unearth the secrets of wisdom through ancient texts and view the modern scientific developments in the light of the above. Strange as it may seem, the results of many scientific researches are stunningly taking us back to the stark reality of the eternal truth of ancient wisdom.
The spread of “Ayurveda” and the spurt in the global demand of herbal medicine in the last decade is one such area where the healing effects of local herbs in several places around globe is being appreciated.
The Academy humbly dedicates this book to the great Sage “Maharsi Bharadvaja” who has contributed a lot of the development of Science and Technology in the world.
The Academy submits this book to the public for their kind review and unbiased analysis. The Academy requests knowledge seekers to send their valuable views to the Director and Chief Editor.
With best wishes
This book "Science and Technology in India through the Ages" is a book written in a simple yet easy to understand style. The book traces the developments in different fields of science from ancient times to modern times. It analyses the requirements of modern times and how the same could be benefitted by capsules of ancient wisdom.
Unique, because the book attempts to unlock the mysteries of the past, compares the ancient visions and results of modern research based experiments and place the facts before the public in an unbiased way for their critical study and judicial implementation in life.
Covering a wide range of chapters from Agriculture to Ayurveda to Architecture: the book has 5 sections and 22 chapters. Chapters are grouped into Sections and is subdivided for clarity. Suitable illustrations make the study interesting. The book is thought simulating and follows a subtle pattern.
Efforts are made to give all documents on ancient wisdom with proper references to the stanza, the book, the author etc. This brings in certain discipline and ease in identifying the ancient books.
There are sections on
Physical Sciences covering Physics, Energy, Cosmology, Astronomy,
Mathematics, Chemistry.
Earth Sciences featuring.
l. Seismology, how Varahamihira’s predictions are as close to recent studies in Seismological
Zones in India.
2. On Gemmology, how gems can be identified.
3. On Geology.
Biological Sciences covering
l. Agriculture - highlighting the steps India need to take for withstanding the onslaughts of WTO
trade barriers based on ancient agricultural practices.
2. On water management, highlighting the water supply and watershed programmes in remote corners
of India.
3. Environment.
4. Ayurveda, Anatomy, Surgery, Vrksayurveda.
Industry & Technology covering Metallurgy, Aeronautics, Industry & Trade and Architecture.
General Section: This section covers achievements of masters in twentieth century and references.
We have used the relevant internet information and also information from similar books for the benefit of the public. We are grateful for the same.
This is a book to the read, enjoyed, digested, reviewed again and again, implemented judiciously in life. The editors will be extremely satisfied, if even a small piece of the wisdom highlighted in the book turns out to be of value addition in the life of respectable readers.
The Path Finders | 1-12 | |
i. | Bharadvaja | 1 |
ii. | Patanjali | 3 |
iii. | Kanada | 4 |
iv. | Susruta | 5 |
v. | Caraka | 7 |
vi. | Aryabhata | 8 |
vii. | Varahamihira | 9 |
viii. | Brahmagupta | 10 |
ix. | Nagarjua | 11 |
x. | Bhaskara | 12 |
Section I – Physical Sciences | ||
Physics | 13-18 | |
i. | Introduction | 13 |
ii. | The five kinds of motion | 14 |
iii. | Elasticity | 14 |
iv. | Gravity | 15 |
v. | The three layers of the Earth | 15 |
vi. | Measurements of Weights | 16 |
vii. | Linear Measurement | 17 |
viii. | Units of Time | 17 |
ix. | The units of Temperature | 18 |
x. | Light | 18 |
Energy | 19-22 | |
i. | Introduction | 19 |
ii. | Types of Energy | 19 |
iii. | Sources of Energy | 20 |
iv | Electrical Energy | 20 |
v. | Chariot run by Electricity | 20 |
vi. | Thermal energy | 21 |
Cosmology | 23-27 | |
i. | Perspectives | 23 |
ii. | Nasadiyasukta | 24 |
iii. | Speed of light | 25 |
iv | Amusbodhini | 26 |
v. | Interferences | 26 |
Mathematics | 29-38 | |
i. | Algebra | 29 |
ii. | Geometry | 29 |
iii. | The concept of zero | 30 |
iv | Use of mathematics in Harappan Civilization | 30 |
v. | Vedic period | 31 |
vi. | To find six R sines | 3 |
vii | Infinitesimal calculus | 35 |
viii. | Paramesvara’s formula for circum radius of cyclic quadrilateral | 35 |
ix. | The Madhava – gergory series for Tan x | 35 |
x. | Indian form for third order Tyler series approximation of the sine. | 36 |
Chemistry | 39-54 | |
i. | Introduction | 39 |
ii. | Rasasala | 40 |
iii. | Equipments | 40 |
iv. | Technical Terms | 41 |
v. | Samskara’s of Parada | 41 |
vi | Musa | 44 |
vii. | Kosthi Yantras | 45 |
viii. | Puta | 45 |
ix. | Vargas or Groups | 45 |
x. | Upa-rasas | 50 |
Section II: Earth Sciences | ||
Geology | 55-62 | |
i. | Introduction | 55 |
ii. | Reference to Ancient Texts | 55 |
iii. | Cycles of Geologic Activity | 58 |
iv. | Fields of Geological Study | 59 |
Seismological zones of Varahamihira | 63-66 | |
Environment | 67-76 | |
i. | Introduction | 67 |
ii. | The Origin of Atmosphere | 68 |
iii. | Weather | 68 |
iv. | Apascakra-Hydrological Cycle | 68 |
v. | Ganga Nadi | 69 |
vi. | Vidyut-Electrical Charge | 69 |
vii. | Indra | 70 |
viii. | Agni | 70 |
ix. | Surya | 71 |
x. | Prthivi | 72 |
xi. | Apah | 72 |
xii. | Dhara | 74 |
xiii. | Paksaja Clouds | 74 |
xiv. | Pollution | 75 |
xv. | The range of Dhara Precipitation | 75 |
Gemmology | 77-89 | |
i. | Introduction | 77 |
ii. | The gems | 77 |
iii. | History | 77 |
iv. | Jewellery | 77 |
v. | Gems cuts | 78 |
vi. | Diamond cutting | 79 |
vii. | References in ancient Texts | 80 |
viii. | Location | 80 |
ix. | Manikya (Ruby) | 80 |
x. | Mauktika (pearl) | 81 |
xi. | Pravala (Coral) | 82 |
xii. | Marakata (Emerald) | 83 |
xiii. | Pusparaga (Topaz) | 83 |
xiv. | Vijra (Diamond) | 84 |
xv. | Nilamani (Sapphire) | 85 |
xvi. | Gomeda (Agate) | 86 |
xvii. | Vaidurya (Cat’s eye) | 86 |
xviii. | Suryakanta (Sun Stone) | 87 |
xix. | Candrakanta (Moonstone) | 87 |
xix. | Rajavarta (Lapis lazuli) | 88 |
xx. | Sphatikamani (Rock crystal) | 88 |
Section III: Biological Sciences | ||
Agriculture | 91-106 | |
i. | Introduction | 91 |
ii. | Ancient Indian Agriculture | 91 |
iii. | Good Seed | 95 |
iv. | Technique of Agriculture | 95 |
v. | Organisation of Agriculture | 96 |
vi. | Agricultural Taxes | 96 |
vii. | Animal Husbandry | 96 |
viii. | Rain fall | 97 |
ix. | Irrigation | 98 |
x. | Manure | 98 |
xi. | Sequence of rotation of cropping | 99 |
xii. | Treatments of Seeds | 100 |
xiii. | Ancient Agricultural Tools | 100 |
xiv. | Agricultural Accessories | 101 |
xv. | Developments in the field of Agriculture in India over the years | 101 |
xvi | Conceptual changes in Agriculture from Vedic Times to Modern Ages | 103 |
xvii | Scientific Agriculture | 104 |
xviii. | Areas needing attention for future growth | 105 |
Water management | 107-120 | |
i. | Introduction | 107 |
ii. | Sources of Water | 107 |
iii. | References in the vedas | 107 |
iv. | History | 108 |
v. | Water in life | 108 |
vi. | Natural water cycle | 108 |
vii. | Composition | 109 |
viii. | Water purification | 110 |
ix. | Removal of Salt from sea water | 110 |
x. | Rain fall | 110 |
xi. | Forecast of rain fall | 111 |
xii. | Water management | 111 |
xiii. | Rain water harvesting | 112 |
xiv. | Water recycling | 113 |
xv. | Artificial rain | 113 |
xvi. | Water drowsing | 117 |
xvii. | Meteorological predictions through the aphorisms in Krsi Parasara | 118 |
xviii. | Cloud | 119 |
Forestry | 121-125 | |
i. | Types of forests | 121 |
ii. | Classification of Flora | 122 |
iii. | The Vedic grasses | 123 |
iv. | Genetic Engineering | 125 |
Vrksayurveda | 127-134 | |
i. | Introduction | 127 |
ii. | The five varieties | 127 |
iii. | Vegetables | 128 |
iv. | Nightshades | 129 |
v. | Antidiabetic - Tulasi | 129 |
vi. | The Treatment of trees | 130 |
vii. | Nourishing Solution | 133 |
Pausu Laksana | 135-143 | |
i. | History | 135 |
ii. | Animal Husbandry | 135 |
iii. | General characteristics of all types of creatures | 142 |
iv. | Classification of Cattle | 142 |
v. | Measurement of different body parts of Horses | 143 |
Ayurveda | 145-175 | |
i. | Introduction | 145 |
ii. | The eight branches | 145 |
iii. | The Philosophy of the Ayurveda | 148 |
iv | The Secrets of Longevity | 149 |
v. | Vedic Ayurveda | 151 |
vi. | Anatomy | 154 |
a. Cardiovascular system – Heart & Blood Vessels | 154 | |
b. Hyper Tension | 161 | |
c. Nature of Mind and Consciousness | 163 | |
d. Brain and the body | 165 | |
vii. | Surgery | 166 |
a. Systematic Summation | 166 | |
b. Treatment of wound | 173 | |
c. Surgery of eyes | 175 | |
Section IV: Industry & Technology | ||
Metallurgy | 177-190 | |
i. | Introduction | 177 |
ii. | References in ancient Indian texts – Iron & Steel | 178 |
iii. | Pure Metals | 180 |
iv. | Soft Metals/Sub-Metals | 180 |
v. | Alloys | 180 |
Aeronautics | 191-193 | |
i. | Man-Machine-Integration | 191 |
ii. | Different parts of an Aeroplane | 192 |
Trade & Commerce | 195-209 | |
i. | Introduction | 195 |
ii. | Economic ideas in ancient India | 195 |
iii. | Weights and Measures | 196 |
iv. | Trade Routes and Transport | 196 |
v. | Water Routes | 197 |
vi. | Markets | 197 |
vii. | Maccha Yantra | 198 |
viii. | The making of dyes and pigments | 199 |
ix. | The smelting of metals | 199 |
x. | Iron | 199 |
xi. | The processing Agro-based Products | 199 |
xii. | The manufacture of Textiles | 201 |
xiii. | Making of drugs and herbal compounds | 203 |
xiv. | The cultivation and process of spices | 204 |
xv. | The processing of timber | 206 |
xvi. | The manufacture of miscellaneous items | 206 |
xvii. | Mercantile terminology | 208 |
xviii. | Conclusion | 209 |
Architecture | 211-230 | |
i. | Introduction | 211 |
ii. | References in ancient texts | 211 |
iii. | History of architecture in India | 211 |
iv. | Developments of Architecture in India over the years | 215 |
v. | Buddhist architecture | 215 |
vi. | Construction materials | 216 |
vii. | Town planning | 217 |
viii. | Vidhana Soudha | 218 |
ix. | Architecture in temple construction | 218 |
x. | Developments in architecture in modern times | 218 |
xi. | Indian Architectural tradition overseas | 219 |
xii. | Town planning in Mohen—jo- daro | 220 |
xiii. | Rock cut architecture | 221 |
xiv. | Temple architecture | 222 |
xv. | Military residential architecture | 223 |
xvi. | The great public bath at Mohen-jo-daro | 223 |
xvii | The dock at Lothal | 223 |
xviii. | Vastu Vidya | 225 |
Ancient Sanskrit texts are a repository for scientific wisdom contained as a capsule. The fragrance of this wisdom needs to be spread far and wide including every household in our sacred land of India. The "Cutting Edge Technologies" being presented in the forthcoming Science Congress , sharpened by the steely wisdom of our ancient seers should sprinkle intellectual thoughts making India a leader in "Science and Technology" in the foreseeable future . India should take leadership in the global movement of peace, moving with nature and environment, spearheading the scientific spirit of inquisitiveness in achieving the objectives of human upliftment for the benefit and welfare of the entire universe.
The Academy of Sanskrit Research with its vision of "Bridging the gap between the Past and the future through the present" has been making efforts to reach out to the public this valuable information for their benefits through several platforms of scientific research. The present venture, the book on "Science and technology in India through the ages” is one such humble effort.
The Academy of Sanskrit Research, Melkote based on successful handling of the project on "Cosmology" for ISRO, was asked to take up the challenging task of bringing out a book which can throw some light on Science and Technology in India through the ages. The academy accepted the challenge in spite of heavy odds like short time frame. The task of convincing the modern scientists and present generation about the wisdom contained in the ancient texts is really a daunting one.
But the academy, in its own humble and systematic way set forth to unearth the secrets of wisdom through ancient texts and view the modern scientific developments in the light of the above. Strange as it may seem, the results of many scientific researches are stunningly taking us back to the stark reality of the eternal truth of ancient wisdom.
The spread of “Ayurveda” and the spurt in the global demand of herbal medicine in the last decade is one such area where the healing effects of local herbs in several places around globe is being appreciated.
The Academy humbly dedicates this book to the great Sage “Maharsi Bharadvaja” who has contributed a lot of the development of Science and Technology in the world.
The Academy submits this book to the public for their kind review and unbiased analysis. The Academy requests knowledge seekers to send their valuable views to the Director and Chief Editor.
With best wishes
This book "Science and Technology in India through the Ages" is a book written in a simple yet easy to understand style. The book traces the developments in different fields of science from ancient times to modern times. It analyses the requirements of modern times and how the same could be benefitted by capsules of ancient wisdom.
Unique, because the book attempts to unlock the mysteries of the past, compares the ancient visions and results of modern research based experiments and place the facts before the public in an unbiased way for their critical study and judicial implementation in life.
Covering a wide range of chapters from Agriculture to Ayurveda to Architecture: the book has 5 sections and 22 chapters. Chapters are grouped into Sections and is subdivided for clarity. Suitable illustrations make the study interesting. The book is thought simulating and follows a subtle pattern.
Efforts are made to give all documents on ancient wisdom with proper references to the stanza, the book, the author etc. This brings in certain discipline and ease in identifying the ancient books.
There are sections on
Physical Sciences covering Physics, Energy, Cosmology, Astronomy,
Mathematics, Chemistry.
Earth Sciences featuring.
l. Seismology, how Varahamihira’s predictions are as close to recent studies in Seismological
Zones in India.
2. On Gemmology, how gems can be identified.
3. On Geology.
Biological Sciences covering
l. Agriculture - highlighting the steps India need to take for withstanding the onslaughts of WTO
trade barriers based on ancient agricultural practices.
2. On water management, highlighting the water supply and watershed programmes in remote corners
of India.
3. Environment.
4. Ayurveda, Anatomy, Surgery, Vrksayurveda.
Industry & Technology covering Metallurgy, Aeronautics, Industry & Trade and Architecture.
General Section: This section covers achievements of masters in twentieth century and references.
We have used the relevant internet information and also information from similar books for the benefit of the public. We are grateful for the same.
This is a book to the read, enjoyed, digested, reviewed again and again, implemented judiciously in life. The editors will be extremely satisfied, if even a small piece of the wisdom highlighted in the book turns out to be of value addition in the life of respectable readers.
The Path Finders | 1-12 | |
i. | Bharadvaja | 1 |
ii. | Patanjali | 3 |
iii. | Kanada | 4 |
iv. | Susruta | 5 |
v. | Caraka | 7 |
vi. | Aryabhata | 8 |
vii. | Varahamihira | 9 |
viii. | Brahmagupta | 10 |
ix. | Nagarjua | 11 |
x. | Bhaskara | 12 |
Section I – Physical Sciences | ||
Physics | 13-18 | |
i. | Introduction | 13 |
ii. | The five kinds of motion | 14 |
iii. | Elasticity | 14 |
iv. | Gravity | 15 |
v. | The three layers of the Earth | 15 |
vi. | Measurements of Weights | 16 |
vii. | Linear Measurement | 17 |
viii. | Units of Time | 17 |
ix. | The units of Temperature | 18 |
x. | Light | 18 |
Energy | 19-22 | |
i. | Introduction | 19 |
ii. | Types of Energy | 19 |
iii. | Sources of Energy | 20 |
iv | Electrical Energy | 20 |
v. | Chariot run by Electricity | 20 |
vi. | Thermal energy | 21 |
Cosmology | 23-27 | |
i. | Perspectives | 23 |
ii. | Nasadiyasukta | 24 |
iii. | Speed of light | 25 |
iv | Amusbodhini | 26 |
v. | Interferences | 26 |
Mathematics | 29-38 | |
i. | Algebra | 29 |
ii. | Geometry | 29 |
iii. | The concept of zero | 30 |
iv | Use of mathematics in Harappan Civilization | 30 |
v. | Vedic period | 31 |
vi. | To find six R sines | 3 |
vii | Infinitesimal calculus | 35 |
viii. | Paramesvara’s formula for circum radius of cyclic quadrilateral | 35 |
ix. | The Madhava – gergory series for Tan x | 35 |
x. | Indian form for third order Tyler series approximation of the sine. | 36 |
Chemistry | 39-54 | |
i. | Introduction | 39 |
ii. | Rasasala | 40 |
iii. | Equipments | 40 |
iv. | Technical Terms | 41 |
v. | Samskara’s of Parada | 41 |
vi | Musa | 44 |
vii. | Kosthi Yantras | 45 |
viii. | Puta | 45 |
ix. | Vargas or Groups | 45 |
x. | Upa-rasas | 50 |
Section II: Earth Sciences | ||
Geology | 55-62 | |
i. | Introduction | 55 |
ii. | Reference to Ancient Texts | 55 |
iii. | Cycles of Geologic Activity | 58 |
iv. | Fields of Geological Study | 59 |
Seismological zones of Varahamihira | 63-66 | |
Environment | 67-76 | |
i. | Introduction | 67 |
ii. | The Origin of Atmosphere | 68 |
iii. | Weather | 68 |
iv. | Apascakra-Hydrological Cycle | 68 |
v. | Ganga Nadi | 69 |
vi. | Vidyut-Electrical Charge | 69 |
vii. | Indra | 70 |
viii. | Agni | 70 |
ix. | Surya | 71 |
x. | Prthivi | 72 |
xi. | Apah | 72 |
xii. | Dhara | 74 |
xiii. | Paksaja Clouds | 74 |
xiv. | Pollution | 75 |
xv. | The range of Dhara Precipitation | 75 |
Gemmology | 77-89 | |
i. | Introduction | 77 |
ii. | The gems | 77 |
iii. | History | 77 |
iv. | Jewellery | 77 |
v. | Gems cuts | 78 |
vi. | Diamond cutting | 79 |
vii. | References in ancient Texts | 80 |
viii. | Location | 80 |
ix. | Manikya (Ruby) | 80 |
x. | Mauktika (pearl) | 81 |
xi. | Pravala (Coral) | 82 |
xii. | Marakata (Emerald) | 83 |
xiii. | Pusparaga (Topaz) | 83 |
xiv. | Vijra (Diamond) | 84 |
xv. | Nilamani (Sapphire) | 85 |
xvi. | Gomeda (Agate) | 86 |
xvii. | Vaidurya (Cat’s eye) | 86 |
xviii. | Suryakanta (Sun Stone) | 87 |
xix. | Candrakanta (Moonstone) | 87 |
xix. | Rajavarta (Lapis lazuli) | 88 |
xx. | Sphatikamani (Rock crystal) | 88 |
Section III: Biological Sciences | ||
Agriculture | 91-106 | |
i. | Introduction | 91 |
ii. | Ancient Indian Agriculture | 91 |
iii. | Good Seed | 95 |
iv. | Technique of Agriculture | 95 |
v. | Organisation of Agriculture | 96 |
vi. | Agricultural Taxes | 96 |
vii. | Animal Husbandry | 96 |
viii. | Rain fall | 97 |
ix. | Irrigation | 98 |
x. | Manure | 98 |
xi. | Sequence of rotation of cropping | 99 |
xii. | Treatments of Seeds | 100 |
xiii. | Ancient Agricultural Tools | 100 |
xiv. | Agricultural Accessories | 101 |
xv. | Developments in the field of Agriculture in India over the years | 101 |
xvi | Conceptual changes in Agriculture from Vedic Times to Modern Ages | 103 |
xvii | Scientific Agriculture | 104 |
xviii. | Areas needing attention for future growth | 105 |
Water management | 107-120 | |
i. | Introduction | 107 |
ii. | Sources of Water | 107 |
iii. | References in the vedas | 107 |
iv. | History | 108 |
v. | Water in life | 108 |
vi. | Natural water cycle | 108 |
vii. | Composition | 109 |
viii. | Water purification | 110 |
ix. | Removal of Salt from sea water | 110 |
x. | Rain fall | 110 |
xi. | Forecast of rain fall | 111 |
xii. | Water management | 111 |
xiii. | Rain water harvesting | 112 |
xiv. | Water recycling | 113 |
xv. | Artificial rain | 113 |
xvi. | Water drowsing | 117 |
xvii. | Meteorological predictions through the aphorisms in Krsi Parasara | 118 |
xviii. | Cloud | 119 |
Forestry | 121-125 | |
i. | Types of forests | 121 |
ii. | Classification of Flora | 122 |
iii. | The Vedic grasses | 123 |
iv. | Genetic Engineering | 125 |
Vrksayurveda | 127-134 | |
i. | Introduction | 127 |
ii. | The five varieties | 127 |
iii. | Vegetables | 128 |
iv. | Nightshades | 129 |
v. | Antidiabetic - Tulasi | 129 |
vi. | The Treatment of trees | 130 |
vii. | Nourishing Solution | 133 |
Pausu Laksana | 135-143 | |
i. | History | 135 |
ii. | Animal Husbandry | 135 |
iii. | General characteristics of all types of creatures | 142 |
iv. | Classification of Cattle | 142 |
v. | Measurement of different body parts of Horses | 143 |
Ayurveda | 145-175 | |
i. | Introduction | 145 |
ii. | The eight branches | 145 |
iii. | The Philosophy of the Ayurveda | 148 |
iv | The Secrets of Longevity | 149 |
v. | Vedic Ayurveda | 151 |
vi. | Anatomy | 154 |
a. Cardiovascular system – Heart & Blood Vessels | 154 | |
b. Hyper Tension | 161 | |
c. Nature of Mind and Consciousness | 163 | |
d. Brain and the body | 165 | |
vii. | Surgery | 166 |
a. Systematic Summation | 166 | |
b. Treatment of wound | 173 | |
c. Surgery of eyes | 175 | |
Section IV: Industry & Technology | ||
Metallurgy | 177-190 | |
i. | Introduction | 177 |
ii. | References in ancient Indian texts – Iron & Steel | 178 |
iii. | Pure Metals | 180 |
iv. | Soft Metals/Sub-Metals | 180 |
v. | Alloys | 180 |
Aeronautics | 191-193 | |
i. | Man-Machine-Integration | 191 |
ii. | Different parts of an Aeroplane | 192 |
Trade & Commerce | 195-209 | |
i. | Introduction | 195 |
ii. | Economic ideas in ancient India | 195 |
iii. | Weights and Measures | 196 |
iv. | Trade Routes and Transport | 196 |
v. | Water Routes | 197 |
vi. | Markets | 197 |
vii. | Maccha Yantra | 198 |
viii. | The making of dyes and pigments | 199 |
ix. | The smelting of metals | 199 |
x. | Iron | 199 |
xi. | The processing Agro-based Products | 199 |
xii. | The manufacture of Textiles | 201 |
xiii. | Making of drugs and herbal compounds | 203 |
xiv. | The cultivation and process of spices | 204 |
xv. | The processing of timber | 206 |
xvi. | The manufacture of miscellaneous items | 206 |
xvii. | Mercantile terminology | 208 |
xviii. | Conclusion | 209 |
Architecture | 211-230 | |
i. | Introduction | 211 |
ii. | References in ancient texts | 211 |
iii. | History of architecture in India | 211 |
iv. | Developments of Architecture in India over the years | 215 |
v. | Buddhist architecture | 215 |
vi. | Construction materials | 216 |
vii. | Town planning | 217 |
viii. | Vidhana Soudha | 218 |
ix. | Architecture in temple construction | 218 |
x. | Developments in architecture in modern times | 218 |
xi. | Indian Architectural tradition overseas | 219 |
xii. | Town planning in Mohen—jo- daro | 220 |
xiii. | Rock cut architecture | 221 |
xiv. | Temple architecture | 222 |
xv. | Military residential architecture | 223 |
xvi. | The great public bath at Mohen-jo-daro | 223 |
xvii | The dock at Lothal | 223 |
xviii. | Vastu Vidya | 225 |