About the Book
Book
1: Social Structure Rural and Urban
Book
2: Family Marriage and Kinship
Book
3: Economy and Polity
Book 4: Social Organisation
Book 5: Caste and Class
Book 6: Tribes in India
Book 7: Women and Society
Book 8: Social Change
Book 1: Social Structure Rural and Urban
Block 1 on Social Structure - Rural and Urban introduces you to the ways
you live, the ways also of those unlike you who live in India and how together
we constitute society in India. Despite recent changes of technological nature,
India's social and cultural life continues to be marked by traditional
'institutions and values and therefore, we examine in this Block the village
and the city as well as the rural-urban continuum both in terms of their
traditional aspects and their changing patterns. The Block thus prepares the
ground for you to intensively view the major social institutions, such as, the
family, marriage and kinship in Block 2 and rural-urban economy and national
and regional polity in India in Block 3.
Unit 1 deals with the elements of Unity and Diversity in
the country, In this unit we look at the variety of
races, languages, religions, and social institutions found in India. These
diversities lead us towards something common also, The
factors that bring the people together are the Constitution pilgrimages a
centralised administration and a common history. Thus the idea of a plural
culture emerges. differences exist and are tolerated
and accommodated, and unity is forged. These points are clarified in unit 1.
Unit 2 on Rural Social Structure discusses the theme
of continuity and change in our rural society. The elements of social structure
are examined in terms of basic institutions of the family, kinship, caste and
class. The unit also shows how village social structure is undergoing a process
of change, Unit 3 on Village and
the Outside World examines the links which villages have
maintained with the wider economic, political and religious systems. These
linkages have been discussed in the context of the pre-British, British and
independent India. The examples to explain the linkages have been drawn from
village studies by sociologists and social anthropologists.
Unit 4 deals with Patterns of Urbanisation in India. The basic features of urbanisation and the historical growth of cities
have been discussed in this unit. The problems associated with urbanisation are
obtained along with a discussion of the impact of this process on rural
society.
Unit 5 on Urban Social Structure requires
you to reflect on the central elements of Indian urban social structure. The
unit outlines commonly discussed features of urban social structure. These
features are essentially conceived in a western context. We want you to see
their relevance in the Indian context. We have described the organisational and socio-cultural aspects of urban
communities. You would see how traditional institutions operate in urban social
structures and how certain issues come before us for a sociological study.
Book 2: Family Marriage and Kinship
Block 2 on family,
marriage and kinship deals with basic social institutions of Indian society.
The previous Block on rural and urban social structures familiarised you with
the social setting within which these institutional arrangements operate. The continuities
and variations in the pattering of these institutions are the main focus of the
four units in Block 2.
The institutions of
family, marriage and kinship are associated with mating, reproduction, caring
for children and old people and group formations on the basis of kin
relationships. In the four units we have not only looked at various aspects of
these activities but also discussed the norms and values linked with them. In
this Block, you will also come across a host of interrelated concepts and terms
to explain the implications of the activities around these institutions. Let us
briefly look at the content of each unit in this Block.
Unit 6 on Family and its Types discusses the nature of the
institution of family in India. It examines the concept of the continuum of
nuclear and joint family system in Indian Social Life. Then it looks at the
factors responsible for changes in these institutions and finally it also
mentions the emerging patterns of family living in India.
Unit 7 deals with Marriage and its Changing Patterns. It
discusses the concept of universality of the institution of marriage in India.
Then it goes on to describe age at marriage, patterns of selection of spouse,
marriage rites, transfer of wealth and prestige that accompany marriage and
divorce and widow remarriage in India. Within this account, the unit mentions
the changes, which have taken place in these aspects of marriage in India.
Unit 8 on Kinship-I defines the kinship system and then discusses
the main approaches to the study of kinship system in India. Next, the unit
focuses on major aspects of patrilineal kinship system in North India.
Unit 9 on Kinship-II describes the kinship system in South India and
also compares the north and south Indian kinship systems. Finally, it gives a brief account of kinship organisation of
matrilineal communities in north-east and south-west India.
Book 3: Economy and Polity
The
five units in this Block deal with different aspects of India's economy and its
political system. The previous Block dealt with some important social
institutions in Indian society. These institutions, namely, marriage, kinship
and family are largely responsible for maintaining the unity of Indian society,
even though they are divergent in form in different parts of the country. The
units in the present Block shift the focus from social institutions to other
wider institutions and problems in the country. These units are complementary
to the earlier ones because it is only after examining the linkages between
economy, polity and society that we can attempt an understanding of the unity
and diversity of the country.
In
order to understand these linkages we have to examine separately the different
aspects of our society. The economic and political aspects are important
features. Most of us are aware that the overwhelming majority of our population
lives in the villages. An understanding of the rural economy is a must for
studying Indian society. The first unit in this Block (unit 10) therefore deals
with the rural
economy. This unit attempts to
provide an understanding of the agrarian structure and the changes the
structure has undergone since 1947. However, in order to assess agricultural
development at present we have to go back to the past occasionally. Many of our
current problems have their roots in past policies. This unit briefly deals
with agriculture in ancient and medieval India so that we get a picture of our
history and the continuity in the process of change. The colonial rule, which
came after this period, was a complete departure from the earlier mode of
development. The main objective of the foreign rulers was to extract as much as
possible out of the economy in order to expand the growing industrial base in
England. This process created severe distortions in our economy, something
which we have not been able to overcome even after decades of independence.
This is why an understanding of the past becomes essential in our study.
In
spite of India's pronounced agrarian background the towns have played an
important role in the society's development. The next unit is hence on the urban economy. There have always been linkages between
the urban sector and the rural sector. In early times the towns were centres of
administration or places of pilgrimage. The craftsperson's too flourished in
the urban centres and they supplied goods to the villages. The urban economy at
present plays a vital role in influencing the rural economy though not in the
same way as it did earlier. Urban areas are centres of industry and they draw
on rural folk for their supply of labour. The towns and cities, especially the
metropolis, attract large number of rural immigrants in search of work. There
are also new types of activities developing in the urban economy, which gives
rise to new social classes. These are substantially different from the
traditional caste-based occupations. At the same time a lot of the present
problems were created by the colonial urban policy. It is, therefore, necessary
to understand how colonialism changed the course of urban growth. These are
some of the aspects covered in this unit.
Book 4: Social Organisation
Block 4 provides you
with an understanding of the patterns of social organisation in India. By
social organisation we mean the systematic ordering of social relations. It
implies the interdependence of parts, which is an essential and important
feature of all enduring collectivises such as, groups, communities, and
societies. These interdependent parts consist of a set of roles and social
positions, values, norms and beliefs found in society. The social values of a
society are usually based on religious beliefs. Behaviour is based on values,
and hence religious beliefs play an important role in determining social
behaviour. There are many religious groups in India and the country has
declared itself to be secular. This means that all religions are to be treated
equally by the state. The units in this block are intended to give a
description of the social organisation of different religious groups. This will
help us to have a better understanding of these religious groups. It was not
possible to include all religions. Five groups have been described, namely,
Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh and Zoroastrian.
Religion is a system
of beliefs, emotional attitudes and practices, by means of which a group of
people attempt to cope with the ultimate problems of
life. Religion and social life are interrelated and it plays an important role
in social control. Religious values impose a certain type of behaviour. The
rituals of religion make one to have respect for the sacred. Religion also has
a bearing on other social institutions. It lays down norms and values, which
should guide the relationships within a family and other social groups. The
sacred texts often indicate how a people should be governed. Religious beliefs
also have an effect on economic behaviour, e.g. the concept of artha and the protestant ethic.
Religion has acted
both as hindrance and help in social change. Where religion has tended to be
traditional, it has resisted change. However, where it has moved with the time
it has often advocated change.
In all Units of this
block reference has been made to some beliefs. A full description of the
beliefs is not given - this is not necessary for our purpose. Special
references to those beliefs that have a direct influence on social life of a
particular community have been referred to. It is expected that this would
enable you to have some idea of the behaviour patterns- of these five
communities. All the units have outlined some of the important rituals; their
meaning and importance for a particular community. Each one of them describes
the forms of worship in the religion discussed. In some cases, the religious
order has also been referred to. The approaches have been different. Case study
- a micro analysis which produces an understanding of the entire group, has
been used in one. In some others, a historical approach has- been used. The
emphasis has been different. No comparisons have been made unless they are used
to emphasise a particular aspect of a specific religious group.
The facts covered in
these units are sufficient to give an idea of the social organisation in five
different religious communities of India.
Book 5: Caste and Class
The focus of this
Block is on caste and class. Some aspects of caste and class have already been
mentioned in Blocks 1 and 3 of this course, ESO 12,
Society in India. In the previous blocks, so far we
have explained the rural and urban social structure, the important social
institutions like family, marriage and kinship, the economic and political
processes, and the social organisations of some of the major religious
communities found in India. For an understanding of society in India, it is
very important to understand its system of social stratification, which
includes both caste, as well as class. In this block, therefore, attention is
now given to the understanding of the nature and components of caste and class
in India. Let us see how the various units in the block 'deal with this topic.
Unit 20: Caste -
Structure and Regional Patterns attempts to explain the structure of caste and
its regional patterns found in various parts of India.
Unit 21: Caste - Continuity and Change discusses the
reasons for continuity of caste and the nature of change that it has undergone
to adapt to new conditions in India.
Unit 22: The
Scheduled Castes describes-the meaning and nature of the Scheduled castes and
discusses the kind of social problems' they have faced
in the past and are still facing in India.
Unit 23: Class hi
India discusses the class formation which is not ruled out by the exist rice of
caste. The nature of class composition in India is briefly surveyed in this
Unit.
Unit 24: Backward
Classes attempts to explain the nature of those castes, and classes, which are
considered backward in socio-economic, political and educational senses.
Powerful movements have been launched in some regions to improve their lot.
This unit is, therefore, devoted to understanding this category.
Altogether this block
should give you a comprehensive understanding of some aspects of the social
reality of India.
Book 6: Tribes in India
In this course, we
have so far discussed such key elements of Indian culture and social structure
as unity in diversity, rural and urban patterns of living, social organisation,
polity and economy, and the nature of caste and class. The tribal population of
India, constituting nearly 8.10 percent of the total population, is' the
subject of this Block. It represents an element in Indian society, which is in
many ways distinctive though, at the same time, integrated with the cultural
mosaic of our civilisation. The special contribution as well as the process of
harmonic integration of tribal culture in the pattern of Indian civilisation
can be captured by examining the definitions, external and internal features of
social structure, religious beliefs and practices, and dynamics of change and
modernisation in the tribal population of India.
The social structure
of tribes is discussed in Units 25 and 26. In addition to outlining the
external features of tribal social structure, Unit 25 deals with the concept of
social structure and the definitions of tribe in the Indian context. The
definitions of tribe are examined both from the point of view of the
governments dealing with them (British and Indian) and that of the academics.
The governmental definition, finally, is that which provides a list of 533
groups, which have been recognised as 'scheduled tribes'. (The exact number of
scheduled tribes in government documents is unfortunately not uniform so you
may come across another figure.) The academic definitions emphasise features
like a specific territory, language, simple technology etc. of the tribes as
also their relative isolation from the centres of civilisation. This last
characteristic is, however, to be treated with utmost caution. In the Indian context,
unlike the situation of tribes in Australia and North America for example,
there has been constant contact and interaction between the tribals and the
non-tribals. However, interestingly enough, in India, this contact and
interaction has not resulted in the loss and submergence of tribal identity or
in the physical elimination of the tribes.
The external
characteristics of the social structure in of tribes in India (Unit 25) refer
to their geographical distribution, racial and linguistic affinities,
demographic features, interaction with other groups and economic pursuits. On
the basis of economic pursuits, an important indicator of tribal identity,
Indian tribes can be divided into eight categories ranging from food gatherers
and hunters to wage-labourers.
The internal
characteristics of tribal social structure in India (Unit 26) refer to the
habitat, groupings, family, marriage, kinship, and patterns of political and
ritual authority. In other words, those features which define the detailed
constitution of particular tribes are included in this unit. The task of
illustrating the internal characteristics of tribal social structure has been
done by providing case studies of particular tribes: the Cholanaicken, the
Khasi, the Toda and the MuIlukurumba. These four tribes are illustrative,
respectively, of foodgathering and hunting, shifting cultivation, pastoralism
and settled agriculture. Besides this, the Khasi are matrilineal and the Toda
polyandrous. The important point to be understood in this representation is, as
repeatedly emphasised by that great anthropological observer of Indian
civilization, the late Prof. N.K. Bose, that the mode of livelihood or economic
infrastructure of tribal life has a determining role in defining tribal
culture. This is clearly illustrated by the fact that the economic pursuit of
the tribal are discussed both as internal and external characteristics of their
social structure.
Book 7: Women and Society
The purpose of this
Block is to provide a sociological perspective for studying women in
contemporary India. In the earlier blocks of this course you have learnt about
the basic features of Indian social structure, institutions, religious
organisations and social groups or categories like caste, class and tribes.
This block introduces you to the way women are affected by the structural,
institutional and organisational set up of our society.
Work participation,
literacy rates, access to property and health facilities and legal provisions
for equality and justice are important indicators of status in the society.
This Block examines the status of women in our society in terms of these given
indicators. At present, women appear to have low access to these major
indicators of status in our society. This is the core of women's issues and
women's movement in India. Let us briefly look at the content of each unit of
this Block.
Unit 29 on Status of
Women gives you a broad idea of the women's position in Indian society. It
discusses how traditional concepts of role and status, social customs, familial
expectations, gender role stereotyping affect women's work, health and
education status. In this unit, you will also learn how women are projected in
the media. It will provide you with a background for further discussion on
women's movements, their work, education and other issues.
Unit 30 deals with Women's Movements in India. This unit begins with some aspects of women's status in traditional
Indian society and then shows how people like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Mahatma
Gandhi and many others tried to improve women's position. You will learn about
different reformist movements in India during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries which raised the issues of women's equality and improvement in their
social status. These movements grew in size and content, and the notions of
equality evolved over time to cover women's right to education,
work and property.
Independence movement
brought women out from the homes and they fought for independence along with
men. As a result, the Constitution of free India granted equal rights to women
in all spheres, social, political and economic. This led to a kind of
complacency among men and women in India, as to provide constitutional
guarantees was considered a sufficient achievement.
But as time passed,
it began to be realised that those guarantees were not converted into actions,
and the age-old discrimination against women continued. This realisation led to
the setting up of a National Commission on Women to look into the status of
women in India. The Commission published its report in 1974. The Report almost
shocked the nation, as it established the unfortunate fact that women continued
to be discriminated against in all spheres of national life. The report gave
rise to more serious thinking, on the part of the Government, as well as among
social workers and intellectuals. After all women are almost half of the
population and a growing nation cannot afford to lose their contribution
towards the development of the country. In addition independent India adopted a
policy of equality and social justice for all,
therefore, it could not neglect women and let them remain in ignorance and
subservience.
Book 8: Social Change
This is the eighth
and last Block of ESO-12. So far, in the previous seven Blocks, various aspects
of Indian social life have been examined in detail. The aspects examined have
been rural and urban social structure, family, marriage and kinship, economy
and polity, social organisation, caste and class, tribes and position of women.
This Block deals with certain aspects of social change in India. The focus has
been on ethnic relations and conflicts, social movements, development planning
and ecology.
Unit 34 describes
ethnic relations and conflicts in India. At the outset, clarification of terms
associated with ethnic relations has been made to facilitate an easy
understanding of the phenomenon in the Indian context. Region, language,
religion and caste have been identified as the major premises on which ethnic
relations operate in India. The governmental role towards ethnic groups during
the British rule as well as after Independence has also been outlined. While examining the phenomenon of ethnic conflicts attention has
been focused mainly on conflicts emerging manifestly on the basis of language
and religion. The essential features exhibited by these conflicts in
India are presented towards the end of the unit along with a list of suggestions
offered by way of solutions to the problem of ethnic conflicts.
Unit 35 discusses the
phenomenon of social movements. This unit defines and describes the essential
features of social movements with suitable examples from India, where possible.
The aspects described are types, functions, origins, role of leadership 'and
ideology and life cycle of social movements. This unit gives a comprehensive
picture of social movements in general as well as the way they are brought
about in India.
Unit 36 deals with
another important element of social change in India namely development
planning. The unit entitled Development Planning and Change,
focuses on the link between planning and change. It points out how social
planning is an important factor in social change. The unit has been divided
into two parts. The first part provides a general sociological background to
understand development planning in a specific context. In part 11, development,
planning and change have been defined and described in the Indian context. In
part I the contributions of some social thinkers towards the phenomenon of
development and change have been presented. While examining the Indian
situation in the second part, the focus has been on approach and schemes of
development planning in India, including the latest 73rd and 74th amendment in
the Constitution. The mixed economy approach, the rural
development schemes, approaches of the five-year plans and the significance of
planned socio-economic development for caste, rural and urban life, as well as,
for women have been discussed.
Unit 37 deals with
Ecology and the Future of Society. The relation between human beings and their
environment has been explained mainly in terms of the way in which nature has
been exploited by technology and the consequent problems that we are facing
today. The unit describes the health hazards that emerge from water and air
pollution, from food contamination toxins, chemical effluents and pesticides.
The indiscriminate felling of trees has contributed to the reduction of forest
cover. The unit discusses the growing social movement to check this in certain
parts of India.
Contents
|
Block
1 Social Structure Rural And
Urban |
|
UNIT
1 |
Unity and Diversity |
9 |
UNIT
2 |
Rural Social Structure |
23 |
UNIT
3 |
Village and the Outside World |
42 |
UNIT
4 |
Patterns of Urbanisation |
57 |
UNIT
5 |
Urban Social Structure |
76 |
|
References |
90 |
|
Block
2 Family, Marriage And
Kinship |
|
UNIT
6 |
Family and its Types |
5 |
UNIT
7 |
Marriage and its Changing Patterns |
22 |
UNIT
8 |
Kinship-I |
42 |
UNIT
9 |
Kinship-II |
61 |
|
References |
83 |
|
Block
3 Economy and Polity |
|
UNIT
10 |
Rural Economy |
5 |
UNIT
11 |
Urban Economy |
26 |
UNIT
12 |
Rural and Urban Poverty |
51 |
UNIT
13 |
National Politics |
73 |
UNIT
14 |
Regional and State Politics |
91 |
|
References |
108 |
|
Block
4 Social Organisation |
|
UNIT
15 |
Hindu Social Organisation |
5 |
UNIT 16 |
Muslim Social Organisation |
23 |
UNIT 17 |
Christian Social Organisation |
42 |
UNIT
18 |
Sikh Social Organisation |
58 |
UNIT 19 |
Zoroastrian Social Organisation |
72 |
|
References |
85 |
|
Block
5 Caste And Class |
|
UNIT
20 |
Caste - Structure and Regional Patterns |
5 |
UNIT
21 |
Caste - Continuity and Change |
22 |
UNIT
22 |
The Scheduled Castes |
38 |
UNIT
23 |
Class in India |
55 |
UNIT
24 |
Backward Classes |
77 |
|
References |
98 |
|
Block
6 Tribes In India |
|
UNIT
25 |
Tribes: Social Structure-I |
5 |
UNIT
26 |
Tribes: Social Structure - II |
22 |
UNIT
27 |
Religion in Tribal Societies |
44 |
UNIT
28 |
Tribes and Modernisation in India |
65 |
|
References |
90 |
|
Block
7 Women And Society |
|
UNIT
29 |
Status of 'Women |
5 |
UNIT
30 |
Women's Movement |
24 |
UNIT
31 |
Women and Work |
42 |
UNIT
32 |
Women and Education |
58 |
UNIT
33 |
Contemporary Women's Issues: Health and Legal
Aspects |
78 |
|
References |
95 |
|
Block
8 Social
Change |
|
UNIT
34 |
Ethnic Relations and Conflicts |
5 |
UNIT
35 |
Social Movements |
27 |
UNIT
36 |
Development Planning and Change |
45 |
UNIT
37 |
Ecology and the Future of Society |
70 |
|
References |
93 |
About the Book
Book
1: Social Structure Rural and Urban
Book
2: Family Marriage and Kinship
Book
3: Economy and Polity
Book 4: Social Organisation
Book 5: Caste and Class
Book 6: Tribes in India
Book 7: Women and Society
Book 8: Social Change
Book 1: Social Structure Rural and Urban
Block 1 on Social Structure - Rural and Urban introduces you to the ways
you live, the ways also of those unlike you who live in India and how together
we constitute society in India. Despite recent changes of technological nature,
India's social and cultural life continues to be marked by traditional
'institutions and values and therefore, we examine in this Block the village
and the city as well as the rural-urban continuum both in terms of their
traditional aspects and their changing patterns. The Block thus prepares the
ground for you to intensively view the major social institutions, such as, the
family, marriage and kinship in Block 2 and rural-urban economy and national
and regional polity in India in Block 3.
Unit 1 deals with the elements of Unity and Diversity in
the country, In this unit we look at the variety of
races, languages, religions, and social institutions found in India. These
diversities lead us towards something common also, The
factors that bring the people together are the Constitution pilgrimages a
centralised administration and a common history. Thus the idea of a plural
culture emerges. differences exist and are tolerated
and accommodated, and unity is forged. These points are clarified in unit 1.
Unit 2 on Rural Social Structure discusses the theme
of continuity and change in our rural society. The elements of social structure
are examined in terms of basic institutions of the family, kinship, caste and
class. The unit also shows how village social structure is undergoing a process
of change, Unit 3 on Village and
the Outside World examines the links which villages have
maintained with the wider economic, political and religious systems. These
linkages have been discussed in the context of the pre-British, British and
independent India. The examples to explain the linkages have been drawn from
village studies by sociologists and social anthropologists.
Unit 4 deals with Patterns of Urbanisation in India. The basic features of urbanisation and the historical growth of cities
have been discussed in this unit. The problems associated with urbanisation are
obtained along with a discussion of the impact of this process on rural
society.
Unit 5 on Urban Social Structure requires
you to reflect on the central elements of Indian urban social structure. The
unit outlines commonly discussed features of urban social structure. These
features are essentially conceived in a western context. We want you to see
their relevance in the Indian context. We have described the organisational and socio-cultural aspects of urban
communities. You would see how traditional institutions operate in urban social
structures and how certain issues come before us for a sociological study.
Book 2: Family Marriage and Kinship
Block 2 on family,
marriage and kinship deals with basic social institutions of Indian society.
The previous Block on rural and urban social structures familiarised you with
the social setting within which these institutional arrangements operate. The continuities
and variations in the pattering of these institutions are the main focus of the
four units in Block 2.
The institutions of
family, marriage and kinship are associated with mating, reproduction, caring
for children and old people and group formations on the basis of kin
relationships. In the four units we have not only looked at various aspects of
these activities but also discussed the norms and values linked with them. In
this Block, you will also come across a host of interrelated concepts and terms
to explain the implications of the activities around these institutions. Let us
briefly look at the content of each unit in this Block.
Unit 6 on Family and its Types discusses the nature of the
institution of family in India. It examines the concept of the continuum of
nuclear and joint family system in Indian Social Life. Then it looks at the
factors responsible for changes in these institutions and finally it also
mentions the emerging patterns of family living in India.
Unit 7 deals with Marriage and its Changing Patterns. It
discusses the concept of universality of the institution of marriage in India.
Then it goes on to describe age at marriage, patterns of selection of spouse,
marriage rites, transfer of wealth and prestige that accompany marriage and
divorce and widow remarriage in India. Within this account, the unit mentions
the changes, which have taken place in these aspects of marriage in India.
Unit 8 on Kinship-I defines the kinship system and then discusses
the main approaches to the study of kinship system in India. Next, the unit
focuses on major aspects of patrilineal kinship system in North India.
Unit 9 on Kinship-II describes the kinship system in South India and
also compares the north and south Indian kinship systems. Finally, it gives a brief account of kinship organisation of
matrilineal communities in north-east and south-west India.
Book 3: Economy and Polity
The
five units in this Block deal with different aspects of India's economy and its
political system. The previous Block dealt with some important social
institutions in Indian society. These institutions, namely, marriage, kinship
and family are largely responsible for maintaining the unity of Indian society,
even though they are divergent in form in different parts of the country. The
units in the present Block shift the focus from social institutions to other
wider institutions and problems in the country. These units are complementary
to the earlier ones because it is only after examining the linkages between
economy, polity and society that we can attempt an understanding of the unity
and diversity of the country.
In
order to understand these linkages we have to examine separately the different
aspects of our society. The economic and political aspects are important
features. Most of us are aware that the overwhelming majority of our population
lives in the villages. An understanding of the rural economy is a must for
studying Indian society. The first unit in this Block (unit 10) therefore deals
with the rural
economy. This unit attempts to
provide an understanding of the agrarian structure and the changes the
structure has undergone since 1947. However, in order to assess agricultural
development at present we have to go back to the past occasionally. Many of our
current problems have their roots in past policies. This unit briefly deals
with agriculture in ancient and medieval India so that we get a picture of our
history and the continuity in the process of change. The colonial rule, which
came after this period, was a complete departure from the earlier mode of
development. The main objective of the foreign rulers was to extract as much as
possible out of the economy in order to expand the growing industrial base in
England. This process created severe distortions in our economy, something
which we have not been able to overcome even after decades of independence.
This is why an understanding of the past becomes essential in our study.
In
spite of India's pronounced agrarian background the towns have played an
important role in the society's development. The next unit is hence on the urban economy. There have always been linkages between
the urban sector and the rural sector. In early times the towns were centres of
administration or places of pilgrimage. The craftsperson's too flourished in
the urban centres and they supplied goods to the villages. The urban economy at
present plays a vital role in influencing the rural economy though not in the
same way as it did earlier. Urban areas are centres of industry and they draw
on rural folk for their supply of labour. The towns and cities, especially the
metropolis, attract large number of rural immigrants in search of work. There
are also new types of activities developing in the urban economy, which gives
rise to new social classes. These are substantially different from the
traditional caste-based occupations. At the same time a lot of the present
problems were created by the colonial urban policy. It is, therefore, necessary
to understand how colonialism changed the course of urban growth. These are
some of the aspects covered in this unit.
Book 4: Social Organisation
Block 4 provides you
with an understanding of the patterns of social organisation in India. By
social organisation we mean the systematic ordering of social relations. It
implies the interdependence of parts, which is an essential and important
feature of all enduring collectivises such as, groups, communities, and
societies. These interdependent parts consist of a set of roles and social
positions, values, norms and beliefs found in society. The social values of a
society are usually based on religious beliefs. Behaviour is based on values,
and hence religious beliefs play an important role in determining social
behaviour. There are many religious groups in India and the country has
declared itself to be secular. This means that all religions are to be treated
equally by the state. The units in this block are intended to give a
description of the social organisation of different religious groups. This will
help us to have a better understanding of these religious groups. It was not
possible to include all religions. Five groups have been described, namely,
Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh and Zoroastrian.
Religion is a system
of beliefs, emotional attitudes and practices, by means of which a group of
people attempt to cope with the ultimate problems of
life. Religion and social life are interrelated and it plays an important role
in social control. Religious values impose a certain type of behaviour. The
rituals of religion make one to have respect for the sacred. Religion also has
a bearing on other social institutions. It lays down norms and values, which
should guide the relationships within a family and other social groups. The
sacred texts often indicate how a people should be governed. Religious beliefs
also have an effect on economic behaviour, e.g. the concept of artha and the protestant ethic.
Religion has acted
both as hindrance and help in social change. Where religion has tended to be
traditional, it has resisted change. However, where it has moved with the time
it has often advocated change.
In all Units of this
block reference has been made to some beliefs. A full description of the
beliefs is not given - this is not necessary for our purpose. Special
references to those beliefs that have a direct influence on social life of a
particular community have been referred to. It is expected that this would
enable you to have some idea of the behaviour patterns- of these five
communities. All the units have outlined some of the important rituals; their
meaning and importance for a particular community. Each one of them describes
the forms of worship in the religion discussed. In some cases, the religious
order has also been referred to. The approaches have been different. Case study
- a micro analysis which produces an understanding of the entire group, has
been used in one. In some others, a historical approach has- been used. The
emphasis has been different. No comparisons have been made unless they are used
to emphasise a particular aspect of a specific religious group.
The facts covered in
these units are sufficient to give an idea of the social organisation in five
different religious communities of India.
Book 5: Caste and Class
The focus of this
Block is on caste and class. Some aspects of caste and class have already been
mentioned in Blocks 1 and 3 of this course, ESO 12,
Society in India. In the previous blocks, so far we
have explained the rural and urban social structure, the important social
institutions like family, marriage and kinship, the economic and political
processes, and the social organisations of some of the major religious
communities found in India. For an understanding of society in India, it is
very important to understand its system of social stratification, which
includes both caste, as well as class. In this block, therefore, attention is
now given to the understanding of the nature and components of caste and class
in India. Let us see how the various units in the block 'deal with this topic.
Unit 20: Caste -
Structure and Regional Patterns attempts to explain the structure of caste and
its regional patterns found in various parts of India.
Unit 21: Caste - Continuity and Change discusses the
reasons for continuity of caste and the nature of change that it has undergone
to adapt to new conditions in India.
Unit 22: The
Scheduled Castes describes-the meaning and nature of the Scheduled castes and
discusses the kind of social problems' they have faced
in the past and are still facing in India.
Unit 23: Class hi
India discusses the class formation which is not ruled out by the exist rice of
caste. The nature of class composition in India is briefly surveyed in this
Unit.
Unit 24: Backward
Classes attempts to explain the nature of those castes, and classes, which are
considered backward in socio-economic, political and educational senses.
Powerful movements have been launched in some regions to improve their lot.
This unit is, therefore, devoted to understanding this category.
Altogether this block
should give you a comprehensive understanding of some aspects of the social
reality of India.
Book 6: Tribes in India
In this course, we
have so far discussed such key elements of Indian culture and social structure
as unity in diversity, rural and urban patterns of living, social organisation,
polity and economy, and the nature of caste and class. The tribal population of
India, constituting nearly 8.10 percent of the total population, is' the
subject of this Block. It represents an element in Indian society, which is in
many ways distinctive though, at the same time, integrated with the cultural
mosaic of our civilisation. The special contribution as well as the process of
harmonic integration of tribal culture in the pattern of Indian civilisation
can be captured by examining the definitions, external and internal features of
social structure, religious beliefs and practices, and dynamics of change and
modernisation in the tribal population of India.
The social structure
of tribes is discussed in Units 25 and 26. In addition to outlining the
external features of tribal social structure, Unit 25 deals with the concept of
social structure and the definitions of tribe in the Indian context. The
definitions of tribe are examined both from the point of view of the
governments dealing with them (British and Indian) and that of the academics.
The governmental definition, finally, is that which provides a list of 533
groups, which have been recognised as 'scheduled tribes'. (The exact number of
scheduled tribes in government documents is unfortunately not uniform so you
may come across another figure.) The academic definitions emphasise features
like a specific territory, language, simple technology etc. of the tribes as
also their relative isolation from the centres of civilisation. This last
characteristic is, however, to be treated with utmost caution. In the Indian context,
unlike the situation of tribes in Australia and North America for example,
there has been constant contact and interaction between the tribals and the
non-tribals. However, interestingly enough, in India, this contact and
interaction has not resulted in the loss and submergence of tribal identity or
in the physical elimination of the tribes.
The external
characteristics of the social structure in of tribes in India (Unit 25) refer
to their geographical distribution, racial and linguistic affinities,
demographic features, interaction with other groups and economic pursuits. On
the basis of economic pursuits, an important indicator of tribal identity,
Indian tribes can be divided into eight categories ranging from food gatherers
and hunters to wage-labourers.
The internal
characteristics of tribal social structure in India (Unit 26) refer to the
habitat, groupings, family, marriage, kinship, and patterns of political and
ritual authority. In other words, those features which define the detailed
constitution of particular tribes are included in this unit. The task of
illustrating the internal characteristics of tribal social structure has been
done by providing case studies of particular tribes: the Cholanaicken, the
Khasi, the Toda and the MuIlukurumba. These four tribes are illustrative,
respectively, of foodgathering and hunting, shifting cultivation, pastoralism
and settled agriculture. Besides this, the Khasi are matrilineal and the Toda
polyandrous. The important point to be understood in this representation is, as
repeatedly emphasised by that great anthropological observer of Indian
civilization, the late Prof. N.K. Bose, that the mode of livelihood or economic
infrastructure of tribal life has a determining role in defining tribal
culture. This is clearly illustrated by the fact that the economic pursuit of
the tribal are discussed both as internal and external characteristics of their
social structure.
Book 7: Women and Society
The purpose of this
Block is to provide a sociological perspective for studying women in
contemporary India. In the earlier blocks of this course you have learnt about
the basic features of Indian social structure, institutions, religious
organisations and social groups or categories like caste, class and tribes.
This block introduces you to the way women are affected by the structural,
institutional and organisational set up of our society.
Work participation,
literacy rates, access to property and health facilities and legal provisions
for equality and justice are important indicators of status in the society.
This Block examines the status of women in our society in terms of these given
indicators. At present, women appear to have low access to these major
indicators of status in our society. This is the core of women's issues and
women's movement in India. Let us briefly look at the content of each unit of
this Block.
Unit 29 on Status of
Women gives you a broad idea of the women's position in Indian society. It
discusses how traditional concepts of role and status, social customs, familial
expectations, gender role stereotyping affect women's work, health and
education status. In this unit, you will also learn how women are projected in
the media. It will provide you with a background for further discussion on
women's movements, their work, education and other issues.
Unit 30 deals with Women's Movements in India. This unit begins with some aspects of women's status in traditional
Indian society and then shows how people like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Mahatma
Gandhi and many others tried to improve women's position. You will learn about
different reformist movements in India during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries which raised the issues of women's equality and improvement in their
social status. These movements grew in size and content, and the notions of
equality evolved over time to cover women's right to education,
work and property.
Independence movement
brought women out from the homes and they fought for independence along with
men. As a result, the Constitution of free India granted equal rights to women
in all spheres, social, political and economic. This led to a kind of
complacency among men and women in India, as to provide constitutional
guarantees was considered a sufficient achievement.
But as time passed,
it began to be realised that those guarantees were not converted into actions,
and the age-old discrimination against women continued. This realisation led to
the setting up of a National Commission on Women to look into the status of
women in India. The Commission published its report in 1974. The Report almost
shocked the nation, as it established the unfortunate fact that women continued
to be discriminated against in all spheres of national life. The report gave
rise to more serious thinking, on the part of the Government, as well as among
social workers and intellectuals. After all women are almost half of the
population and a growing nation cannot afford to lose their contribution
towards the development of the country. In addition independent India adopted a
policy of equality and social justice for all,
therefore, it could not neglect women and let them remain in ignorance and
subservience.
Book 8: Social Change
This is the eighth
and last Block of ESO-12. So far, in the previous seven Blocks, various aspects
of Indian social life have been examined in detail. The aspects examined have
been rural and urban social structure, family, marriage and kinship, economy
and polity, social organisation, caste and class, tribes and position of women.
This Block deals with certain aspects of social change in India. The focus has
been on ethnic relations and conflicts, social movements, development planning
and ecology.
Unit 34 describes
ethnic relations and conflicts in India. At the outset, clarification of terms
associated with ethnic relations has been made to facilitate an easy
understanding of the phenomenon in the Indian context. Region, language,
religion and caste have been identified as the major premises on which ethnic
relations operate in India. The governmental role towards ethnic groups during
the British rule as well as after Independence has also been outlined. While examining the phenomenon of ethnic conflicts attention has
been focused mainly on conflicts emerging manifestly on the basis of language
and religion. The essential features exhibited by these conflicts in
India are presented towards the end of the unit along with a list of suggestions
offered by way of solutions to the problem of ethnic conflicts.
Unit 35 discusses the
phenomenon of social movements. This unit defines and describes the essential
features of social movements with suitable examples from India, where possible.
The aspects described are types, functions, origins, role of leadership 'and
ideology and life cycle of social movements. This unit gives a comprehensive
picture of social movements in general as well as the way they are brought
about in India.
Unit 36 deals with
another important element of social change in India namely development
planning. The unit entitled Development Planning and Change,
focuses on the link between planning and change. It points out how social
planning is an important factor in social change. The unit has been divided
into two parts. The first part provides a general sociological background to
understand development planning in a specific context. In part 11, development,
planning and change have been defined and described in the Indian context. In
part I the contributions of some social thinkers towards the phenomenon of
development and change have been presented. While examining the Indian
situation in the second part, the focus has been on approach and schemes of
development planning in India, including the latest 73rd and 74th amendment in
the Constitution. The mixed economy approach, the rural
development schemes, approaches of the five-year plans and the significance of
planned socio-economic development for caste, rural and urban life, as well as,
for women have been discussed.
Unit 37 deals with
Ecology and the Future of Society. The relation between human beings and their
environment has been explained mainly in terms of the way in which nature has
been exploited by technology and the consequent problems that we are facing
today. The unit describes the health hazards that emerge from water and air
pollution, from food contamination toxins, chemical effluents and pesticides.
The indiscriminate felling of trees has contributed to the reduction of forest
cover. The unit discusses the growing social movement to check this in certain
parts of India.
Contents
|
Block
1 Social Structure Rural And
Urban |
|
UNIT
1 |
Unity and Diversity |
9 |
UNIT
2 |
Rural Social Structure |
23 |
UNIT
3 |
Village and the Outside World |
42 |
UNIT
4 |
Patterns of Urbanisation |
57 |
UNIT
5 |
Urban Social Structure |
76 |
|
References |
90 |
|
Block
2 Family, Marriage And
Kinship |
|
UNIT
6 |
Family and its Types |
5 |
UNIT
7 |
Marriage and its Changing Patterns |
22 |
UNIT
8 |
Kinship-I |
42 |
UNIT
9 |
Kinship-II |
61 |
|
References |
83 |
|
Block
3 Economy and Polity |
|
UNIT
10 |
Rural Economy |
5 |
UNIT
11 |
Urban Economy |
26 |
UNIT
12 |
Rural and Urban Poverty |
51 |
UNIT
13 |
National Politics |
73 |
UNIT
14 |
Regional and State Politics |
91 |
|
References |
108 |
|
Block
4 Social Organisation |
|
UNIT
15 |
Hindu Social Organisation |
5 |
UNIT 16 |
Muslim Social Organisation |
23 |
UNIT 17 |
Christian Social Organisation |
42 |
UNIT
18 |
Sikh Social Organisation |
58 |
UNIT 19 |
Zoroastrian Social Organisation |
72 |
|
References |
85 |
|
Block
5 Caste And Class |
|
UNIT
20 |
Caste - Structure and Regional Patterns |
5 |
UNIT
21 |
Caste - Continuity and Change |
22 |
UNIT
22 |
The Scheduled Castes |
38 |
UNIT
23 |
Class in India |
55 |
UNIT
24 |
Backward Classes |
77 |
|
References |
98 |
|
Block
6 Tribes In India |
|
UNIT
25 |
Tribes: Social Structure-I |
5 |
UNIT
26 |
Tribes: Social Structure - II |
22 |
UNIT
27 |
Religion in Tribal Societies |
44 |
UNIT
28 |
Tribes and Modernisation in India |
65 |
|
References |
90 |
|
Block
7 Women And Society |
|
UNIT
29 |
Status of 'Women |
5 |
UNIT
30 |
Women's Movement |
24 |
UNIT
31 |
Women and Work |
42 |
UNIT
32 |
Women and Education |
58 |
UNIT
33 |
Contemporary Women's Issues: Health and Legal
Aspects |
78 |
|
References |
95 |
|
Block
8 Social
Change |
|
UNIT
34 |
Ethnic Relations and Conflicts |
5 |
UNIT
35 |
Social Movements |
27 |
UNIT
36 |
Development Planning and Change |
45 |
UNIT
37 |
Ecology and the Future of Society |
70 |
|
References |
93 |